[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
now operational in Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan, Koreaand Malaysia. 22 Combating Terrorism in the Transport Sector – Economic Costs and Benefits • The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport is set to introduce anti-terrorist legislation that will prevent foreign ships from entering Japanese ports unless they have a security crew on board and can provide identification (World Bank, 2003). • Hong Kong’s customs authorities have created a terrorist response system, acquiring mobile x-ray machines and a radiation detector to scan cargo, and are strengthening their intelligence capabilities with more staff and equipment (World Bank, 2003). Costs of new maritime security measures The costs of compliance with the ISPS code introduced by the IMO are a cost of doing business in an environment with heightened terrorist risk. To comply with these new rules to improve maritime security, ship operators will need to install security equipment at an estimated establishment cost of at least US$1.3 billion and ongoing operating costs of around US$730 million a year. Seaports also will need to upgrade security at a further cost, likely to be as large if not larger than the additional cost faced by ship operators. System-wide procedural changes, such as those imposed by the US 24-hour advance notice rule, are more difficult to assess, but based on carriers’ data alone were estimated in 2003 to be US$282 million. The overall costs of those transport counter-terrorism measures that could be measured were estimated in 2003 to be slightly over US$2 billion (OECD, 2003). In Australia, the government announced in the 2003-04 Federal Budget that it would allocate A$15.6 million over two years to tighten Australia’s maritime and port security by developing enabling legislation, providing guidance to industry and ensuring compliance with the ISPS code (DOTARS, 2003). The Government expects that the implementation costs to industry will be A$313 million in the first year, with ongoing costs of up to A$96 million per year (Maritime Security Bill 2003 Explanatory Memorandum). • The Australian Ship-owners Association estimates that the cost for the 47 affected Australian-flagged vessels could be between A$750 000 and A$900 000 each (Higgins, 2003). 23 4.2 New aviation security measures Since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the safety and security of the civil aviation system has assumed greater importance, and efforts to strengthen the system have become the subject of international attention. Significant aviation security measures have been introduced by governments, airlines, airports and aviation associations. The International Civil Aviation Organisation’s (ICAO) Plan of Action for Strengthening Aviation Security formulated after 11 September 2001 includes: • the identification, analysis and development of an effective global response to new and emerging threats integrating timely measures to be taken in specific fields including airports, aircraft and air traffic control systems • strengthening of the security-related provisions of the Convention on International Civil Aviation, using expedited procedures where warranted and subject to overall safety considerations, to provide protection to the flight deck • the establishment of security audit programs to identify and correct deficiencies in the implementation of ICAO security-related standards (ICAO, 2002). In order to assist States with implementation, ICAO has developed a Training Programme for Aviation Security, currently comprising seven aviation security training packages. The G8 at the Kananaskis Summit committed to: accelerate implementation of standards for reinforced flight deck doors for all G8 passenger aircraft and of mandatory aviation security audits of all ICAO contracting States; enhance cooperation including sharing of information about security assessments and vulnerabilities; and encourage proportionate contributions to the ICAO aviation security mechanism. In the US, the US Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001 aims to create, develop and streamline security procedures and protocols and reduce the chances of any security breach or violation (Coughlin et al., 2002). The legislation requires the Attorney General and the Secretary of Transportation to develop a program that ensures the screening of all passengers and baggage for illegal and dangerous items. The Act established a new Transport Security Administration picking up elements including: sky marshals, flight deck integrity measures, improved airport perimeter access security, security screening, and provision of passenger manifests. In Australia, since 11 September 2001, the Government has implemented additional security measures, including: increased passenger baggage screening and access control; increased 24 Combating Terrorism in the Transport Sector – Economic Costs and Benefits
[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ] zanotowane.pldoc.pisz.plpdf.pisz.plgrolux.keep.pl
|